Author: Mahdi Mozaffari In the first issue of the article "Women and Entrepreneurship," we discussed the foundations of the research and defined its fundamental concepts. We also explained the role of women in national development, stating that women's entrepreneurship serves as a powerful force and driver that plays a vital role in the progress and prosperity of communities. This influence impacts various dimensions of national development through different pathways, bringing about positive and valuable outcomes. Now, in the second issue of this article, we will address the factors affecting women's employment. We will discuss the components involved in maximizing Afghan women's participation in the workforce and outline some barriers to Afghan women's entrepreneurship. The factors influencing women's entrepreneurship can be examined across four dimensions: individual, cultural, economic, and social. Examining the Impact of Individual Dimensions (Motivations, Personality Traits, and Demographic Characteristics) on Women's Employment In analyzing the individual factors affecting women's employment, attention to their motivations, personality traits, and demographic characteristics is crucial. These factors interact with one another to create conditions and contexts necessary for women's presence in the workforce or to create obstacles in their path. The Role of Motivations and Personality Traits Studies have shown a direct and positive relationship between self-confidence, positive self-perception, and women's employment and job positions. Women who believe in their abilities and possess high self-esteem are more assertive in seeking job opportunities and tend to perform successfully in the workplace. Afghan women pursue employment for various motivations, including: Economic Independence: Some Afghan women seek economic independence to meet their own needs and those of their families. This is especially important for women who are heads of households or come from low-income families.   Empowerment: Employment provides Afghan women with an opportunity for empowerment and social advancement. By acquiring skills and experience in the workplace, women enhance their self-confidence and self-esteem, enabling them to take a more active role in decisions related to their lives and families. Supporting the Family: In many Afghan families, women play a crucial role in providing for the household. Employment allows women to contribute to the family income and helps improve the living conditions for themselves and their children. Impact of Demographic Variables Fertility Rate: Studies show that in many societies, especially in countries with young populations and high fertility rates, women's participation in the labor market significantly decreases. Increased caregiving responsibilities resulting from childbearing are recognized as one of the main factors contributing to this phenomenon. Challenges related to balancing labor demands with family responsibilities, including time constraints, childcare costs, and lack of appropriate infrastructure, are considered major barriers to women's employment. Afghanistan, with a total fertility rate of 5.1 children per woman, is one of the countries facing this challenge acutely. This rate is significantly higher than the global average of 2.1 children, indicating high fertility among women in this country. In contrast, the female labor force participation rate in Afghanistan is only 24%, the lowest in the South Asian region. This statistic clearly shows a significant inverse relationship between fertility rates and women's participation in the labor market in Afghanistan. However, the relationship between women's employment and fertility rates is not a simple linear one, and multiple factors influence this complex relationship. In addition to cultural, social, and economic factors, government policies, access to childcare services, equal job opportunities, and societal attitudes toward women's roles in the community also play a significant role. Overall, it can be said that in Afghanistan, the high fertility rate and low female labor market participation are the result of the intersection of various cultural, social, and economic factors. To increase women's participation in the workforce and improve the economic and social status of Afghan women, comprehensive and integrated policies must be considered that simultaneously address reducing fertility rates, improving childcare infrastructure, creating equal job opportunities, and changing social attitudes. Marital Status: Among women in Afghanistan, unmarried women enjoy greater freedom to enter the labor market and actively participate in economic and social spheres due to the prevailing social and economic structures. In contrast, married women face numerous obstacles rooted in traditional norms and a lack of supportive infrastructure. Societal expectations for married women to take primary responsibility for childcare and household duties are considered one of the main reasons for the low economic participation rates of married women in Afghanistan. This is particularly evident in areas where educational and job opportunities for women are limited. On the other hand, the absence of affordable daycare centers and childcare facilities, as well as underdeveloped public transportation systems, create additional challenges for working married women. These women often struggle to balance their family and work responsibilities, which frequently results in reduced working hours or complete job abandonment. Consequently, gender inequalities in Afghanistan's labor market have deepened, leaving married women marginalized within this market. Education Level: Official statistics indicate significant achievements in Afghanistan regarding increased literacy rates and women's presence in universities up to 2021. These accomplishments, resulting from decades of effort, were seen as a promise of a brighter future for women in Afghanistan. By acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills, women made substantial strides toward improving their status in society and participating in various fields. However, unfortunately, since that year, we have witnessed a concerning downward trend in this area. Statistics show a noticeable decline in literacy rates, particularly among women. This sudden drop has raised alarms about the country's educational system, raising fears that the achievements of past decades may be completely lost. This decline in literacy rates stems from reduced female attendance in schools and universities (a situation exacerbated by anti-educational policies). This issue could have multiple negative consequences for the country, including a severe reduction in women's participation in the workforce and a decline in their employment levels. It is evident that the absence of women in various fields poses a significant barrier to the progress and development of the country.

Author: Mahdi Mozaffari In traditional societies, where patriarchal norms and beliefs prevail, women face numerous challenges on their entrepreneurial journey. These barriers, deeply rooted in social structures, not only hinder the progress and empowerment of women in the economic sphere but also act as an invisible chain, restricting the development and advancement of the entire community. Afghanistan serves as a concrete example of traditional societies where women entrepreneurs grapple with multiple obstacles. Gender inequality is deeply embedded in the fabric of this society, depriving women of equal opportunities. Among the manifestations of this inequality are the restrictions imposed on women's education and employment. Moreover, Afghan women entrepreneurs encounter significant difficulties in accessing financial resources and banking facilities. This makes it considerably harder for them to establish and manage businesses. Existing laws and regulations are often discriminatory and fail to provide adequate support for women entrepreneurs. The barriers to women's entrepreneurship in traditional societies have dire consequences for the entire community. Limiting half of the creative and innovative potential of society means losing valuable opportunities for development and progress. Therefore, overcoming these obstacles and empowering women entrepreneurs is an undeniable necessity for achieving a just, developed, and sustainable society. The Role of Women as Nation Builders; Beyond Limitations on the Path to National Development Throughout history, women have played a role that transcends their traditional duties, serving as foundational pillars of societies and advancing the development and progress of nations. The active presence of women in various fields, including entrepreneurship, is a testament to this claim. Multiple pieces of evidence indicate an increasing inclination among women to own small businesses and establish independent enterprises. This trend, alongside the growing employment rates for women at various levels, reflects the rising participation of women in the economic structures of societies. Although there are no precise official statistics on the number of businesses owned or managed by women at the national (Afghanistan) and global levels, evidence suggests a significant growth in women's entrepreneurship. Estimates indicate that women comprise about one-third of entrepreneurs worldwide. Women’s entrepreneurship is a dynamic process in which women leverage their abilities and creativity to start a business. This requires taking on various risks and challenges but ultimately leads to job creation for themselves and others, as well as the independent management of an economic activity. Women Entrepreneurs Operate in Various Forms: Individual Woman Entrepreneur: A woman who independently starts, organizes, and manages a business. Group of Women Entrepreneurs: A group of women who collaborate to establish and run a business together. According to Schumpeter's theory, an innovative woman entrepreneur is one who applies creativity and initiative to implement new ideas within a business framework. Karmal Singh, a prominent entrepreneur from Rajasthan, provides a comprehensive definition of a woman entrepreneur: "A woman entrepreneur is a confident and creative individual seeking economic independence, whether independently or in collaboration with others. By establishing and managing a business, she creates job opportunities not only for herself but also for others. Women entrepreneurs are founders or CEOs of businesses that offer unique products or services in the market and strive for national and global development." The Role of Women Entrepreneurs in National Development Women’s entrepreneurship serves as a driving force that plays a vital role in the advancement and prosperity of societies. This influence affects various dimensions of national development through multiple pathways, bringing about positive and valuable outcomes. Below are the most significant of these outcomes: Reduction of Poverty and Inequality: Women entrepreneurs contribute directly to reducing poverty and inequality in society, especially among vulnerable groups, by creating job opportunities and generating income for themselves and others. Economic empowerment of women reduces class disparities and fosters social equality. Job Creation: The establishment of small and large businesses by women entrepreneurs generates new job opportunities for community members, particularly women, youth, and graduates. This helps decrease unemployment rates and leads to economic dynamism and growth. Economic Growth and Development: The entrepreneurial activities of women are considered a driving force for growth and economic development at both national and regional levels. The innovation, creativity, and production of new products and services by these empowered women contribute to an increase in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and the enhancement of economic development indicators. Innovation and Creativity: Women entrepreneurs play a key role in advancing technology, diversifying products and services, and creating new solutions to various challenges with their creative minds and innovative ideas. This leads to dynamism and transformation in various economic, social, and cultural fields. Empowerment of Women: Entrepreneurship provides a suitable platform for empowering women from various personal and social aspects. Achieving economic independence, boosting self-confidence, enhancing skills and specialized knowledge, and actively participating in public spheres are among the positive outcomes of entrepreneurship for women. Sustainable Development: Women’s entrepreneurship, with a responsible and sustainable approach, contributes to environmental preservation, promotes social values, and fosters equitable and resilient communities. These women entrepreneurs think about conserving natural resources and improving the quality of life for future generations through sustainable production and consumption practices. Despite the numerous benefits of women’s entrepreneurship, there are also several challenges they face in their endeavors. Lack of access to capital, gender discrimination, insufficient supportive infrastructure, and cumbersome regulations are among these challenges. This issue will be addressed in subsequent sections of this article.